INDIVIDUALS AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TODAY

A

RESEARCH PAPER ON

INDIVIDUALS AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TODAY

Abstract:

This Research paper gives us knowledge with information about English Language in individual perception and importance of English is modern time, modern scenario and it focus on how to make modern English in the age of techno era. In India and other developing countries English speak differently, and we can find many influences as well as impact of native or vernacular language influence on English. We can find truly if we go to India and other particular countries of the world. Basically, I am from India and in India we have 26 states all the states have their own state languages with the state inner part language or co languages. Gujarat is one of the state of India and I born in Gujarat we who are the student of English are able to find the impact or influence of the vernacular dialects on English. My colleagues and other person speaks English in our vernacular accents neither pure in England English nor American English. They speak Indian English only. They are take pause during talking. They have to take time for to first translate English into their mother language or dialect and then after they speak in English, because English is not our mother tongue and in this line I will go to make research paper on it. In Gujarat majorly you can find such Gujarati who speaks not perfectly Hindi in true way so English is very hard for them. In this research paper we see and learn about making of modern English through different ways and through individual perceptions of Poets, People, Religion, Speech, Influences, and Country as well.

Keywords:

English, Modern, Perception, Language, Vernacular, Provincial Language, Influences, Religion, Country, Books, World, Techno Era, Computer Language, Online study

Information:

Phonetic transcription and tonic transcription would be necessary to present a language fully. We must have a more than anything else, gives character to a language and tone patterns. For this contemporary speech is necessary – hence the use of gramophone records, lingua-phones etc. but in the case of past language, reading some rough knowledge of its pronunciation from the statements of grammarians, occasional spelling of scribes, intonation of Shakespeare` verse except, perhaps, printers, punctuation of his play. the contribution of individuals to English language in view of the foregoing remarks though this is not the basic factor. Yet there have been such great authors that their new words and individuals phrases have become part of literary heritage of writers. Such literary additions have sometimes percolated to the colloquial usage.

 We can’t conclude that because the words like back, bump and the phrase what the dickens are the first used in Shakespeare`, they are the gifts of Shakespeare to English usages. It may be he picked these words from colloquial speech. But there are some expression, very vivid and individual in Shakespeare` and have become part of written and spoken language; we may be justified in calling them Shakespeare’s contribution in the shaping of the language e.g. to out-herod Herod, Salad Days, Baggers’ description and brevity is the soul of wit and ‘conscience does make cowards of us all.’ These have acquired a permanent place in English. Yet, a notable writer can leave his mark on a language only by giving currency to some words and phrases. Yet in poetry there is tradition to look back on the great poets of the past. So, wordsworth’s language is bound to have the influence of Milton and Spenser’s language of Chaucer. In this way Chaucer had a considerable influence on English language.

Some authors like Chaucer and Shakespeare` have criticized linguistic fashions of their times and    Dryden, Swift, and Dr. Johnson have striven to improve the language. So, their writings would be useful to a student of English language.

Old portraits show physical differences from the present ones; the ways of thinking and feeling of the past generations must have separated them from us. We can exactly pinpoint the difference between us and the Elizabethans. But the language that is partly physical and partly mental is with us which tells us about the Elizabethan ways of thinking. In short, a language is a social activity but, when studied historically, it can tell us about parts of our history, about physical and mental characteristic of the period, its pronunciation etc. So, the study of the great masters will tell us about their contribution and about the characteristics of a period. In a sense every great author has left his footprints on the sands of the development of English language.

The Influence of the Bible Translations an English Language:

Which considering the influence of the Bible we must not confuse its thought content with its language-effect. For example in translating from Latin into English phrases, like sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal in chapter 13 of I Corinthians, the translator had very little choice of words. So the image is so effective that even when translating this from Greek of St. Paul, the translator could not improve on what the Latin translator had done. Tyndale’s ‘Babble not much’ for the Greek Battalogesete was a good translation. It was better than the translation of the Authorized Version ‘Use not vain repetitions ‘yet ‘babble’ though good has sunk to colloquial use.

Other versions of the Bible than the Authorized Version have left the imprint on the language. Equally influential was the Anglican Prayer Book. The Authorized Version has rendered it as ‘Forgive us our debts’ but the Prayer Book has rendered it as ‘Forgive us our Trespasses’. It corresponds to the French version of the translation. Scapegoat was coined by Tyndale in his translation. Prodigal son and Mess of pottage came through chapter headings of versions before the Authorized Version. ‘Sweet of thy brow’ has perhaps survived from early Lollard versions of the Bible.  

Tyndale had a gift of using telling phrases and idiomatic yet beautiful renderings. They were taken over by King James’s translation and have remained in use. Hence, the great influence of the Bible as a phrase maker. Coverdale’s translation has given ‘Tender-Hearted’ and ‘Loving Kindness’. ‘The iron that entered my soul’ came from Donai-Rheims Bible. The influence is also seen in prose rhythm, syntax, and style (given by the Authorized Version) normally the language of a sacred text should be a little archaic and removed from the daily use of life. It should suggest mystery through symbols and imagery. The Authorized Version translators made their language a little archaic and used a more dignified parlance. Tyndale had tried to make the Bible familiar to the ploughboy as well and had used colloquial language. But a more dignified language becomes divine literalness and colloquialism. It is possible that becoming obsolete, have survived e.g. Damsel, Raiment etc. it may also possibly be due to the popularity of romances like Malory’s Mortar d’ Arthur.

Tyndale’s influence is seen particularly in the Old Testament. His phrases have passed into modern English through the authorized version of 1611. The familiar phrase like the burden and the heat of the day, eat drink and be merry, the powers that be etc. are all Tyndale’s phrases. Tyndale’s literal following of Greek, has been replaced by the Authorized Version. The same is the case with certain technical terms he translated. These were replaced by traditional English words. E.g. favor for grace. But even he was trying to correct his wrong assumptions before he died, as in full of grace for his earlier highly favored. The depth of meaning has been attached to the word charity instead of Tyndale’s love. Tyndale gave to English the phrase glad tidings. The habit of listening to the passages of the Bible has brought unsought words and phrases to the hearers. The Bible has a vast influence on English prose rhythm and phrasing and many phrases have lingered in English without men being conscious of their origin. The written language is full of such indirect influence of the Bible. Even the spoken language retains some such tendencies. For example when we say ‘I wash my hands of the whole business’ we echo Pilate’s action of washing his hands in public. Lord’s Prayer suggested ‘Gone to kingdom come.’ And ‘cared for none of those things’ but this vast influences is more a matter of cultural history than language. Similarly, for to, the winter is past, the rain over and gone………and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land is from, from the Bible. An American play was titled, The Voice of the turtle and few connect it with The Song of Solomon

Shakespeare’s influence on English:

The influence of Shakespeare as the maker of English is just like that of the bible. It is so fundamental and widespread. Poets and play wrights have followed his phrasing, often unconsciously. Shakespeare was interested in English language as such. He constantly criticizes the stylistic fashions of his contemporaries as his remarks in as you like it on Italianate Englishmen show. In Love’s labor lost he criticizes the pedantic Latinizing school master Holofernes and Browne discovers the value of Plain honest words for example:

‘Taffeta phrases, sitien terms precise

Three-pil’d hydperboles, sprdee affection.’

We find a satire on the flowery style of euphues of Lyly in Henry IV part I. the word mobbed is commented upon by Polonius in Hamlet. The consciousness of Shakespeare about the language is evident in the puns and equivocations he uses in his earlier plays. Thus, in hamlet the pun on the words trap and ‘tropically’ depends on the pronunciation of tropically as tropically in those days.

Shakespeare is an expert in the dramatic use of dialogue and made some permanent contributions in that field. He tried to use ‘local color’ in the Taming of the Shrew using some provincialism. E.g. Pheeze (to drive away) the rustically rhymes of touchstone in as you like it and the fool in King Lear show a deliberate use of provincialisms. Similarly we find vlood bolter’d Banquo in Macbeth used in the sense of Blood in his mated hair’. It is a west midland provincial word used by Shakespeare`. In Henry V, he uses the dialect of Scots, Irish and Welsh soldiers. In merry wives of Windsor he uses the English of Frenchmen and Welshmen. In King Lear we got the rustically dialogue in the speeches Edgar. Shakespeare’s stage rustics were made to speak a modified south-western dialect. The rustics must use the dialect which the London audience can understand easily. So Shakespeare’s provincialisms have local colour etc. but only to the extent of being understood by the London audience. So it is a literary stage dialect, not the real one. His native Warwickshire suggested a term for a foreigner Vashimecu in Henry VIII part II. The phrase ‘speak’ within doors’ means that ‘speak as quietly as possibly’ (Othello). Dwindle is the west midland word now common in use. ‘Dwindle. Peak and Pine’. (Macbeth) sometimes Shakespeare makes fun of the archaizing tendency of his time. (In Merry Wives of Windsor). The archaic Eyne is used for eyes for the sake of rhyme in As You like It.

A number word seems to make their first appearance in Shakespeare. It is more likely that he; gifted them out the colloquial terms of his time in such cases. Similar is the case with Latin words. For example L bump from the spoken language and castigate from Latin do not seem to be coined by Shakespeare. Similar is the case with gloomy (used by Marlowe and Shakespeare). Auspicious and critic Shakespeare’s vocabulary was vast but it does not mean that many words first recorded by Shakespeare are his congaed. But incarnadine (in Macbeth) seems to be Shakespeare’s creation. But Shakespeare’s unique contribution seems to be in creation or adaption of beautiful phrases from the spoken idiom. With the French prefix-en he made a number of words like enact embattle, embayed (locked in a bay), empoison. Enfree, engirt, enkindle. Enrooted etc. he made new effective compounds by joining two adjectives. He used adjectives to make new verbs. Such as happy (to make happy) safe (to make safe) etc. he made verbs from nouns spaniel’s chulded, father’d etc. with the prefix un he coined unvoiced (inevitable), unvalued uncharged (acquit), unfather’d unkissed etc. But, Shakespeare’s language lives in a number of memorable phrases. Shakespeare picked up even ‘low’ parts of language and used them, for individuality of effects. Some phrases thus lifted have been kept alive because Shakespeare used them e.g. what the dickens (Merry Wives of Windsor) meaning perhaps ‘what the devil’. Similarly in case with past praying for (Henry IV Part – 1) or patience on a monument (Twelfth Night); to the manner born (Hamlet); Hoist with his own petard (Hamlet); to be or not to be (Hamlet) etc.

Many phrases of Shakespeare are found in accepted parlance with a meaning other than what Shakespeare intended e.g. a foregone conclusion (Othello) an experience previously undergone, conclusion was then used for experience or experiment. More honour’d in the branch than the observance where Shakespeare meant ‘would be more honorably broken than observed’

In the Elizabethan and Jacobean English, there was flexibility in the grammatical usages. New collections of words (nouns or adjectives being used as verbs) became common. So some thoughts of Shakespeare had no grammar at all. This is a misunderstanding Elizabethan flexibility was more logical rather than grammatical in form because loss of inflexions had removed the morphological differences. This led to extraordinary flexibility of modern English grammar.

Some Formative working Critics:

The translators of the authorized version of the bible were a group working closely together. They had consciousness of the choice of language and its fundamental importance. The bible and Shakespeare have been outstanding influences; there were other writers who have made their contributions. They have been formative working critics.

Chaucer was a most interested student of language. In his reeve’s tale, he has shown two North Country undergraduates using their native dialect. This is the first time an English man showed interest in a local dialect and provincialisms in speech. Chaucer also wrote a humorous poem chastising has scribe for his negligence in copying. At the end of Troilus and Criseyde, he interested a prayer for the correct copying and avoidance of errors of meters or language. But Chaucer, unlike Shakespeare, did not have a dominant influence on English language. Before the rise of printing, no writer could have had any significant effect on the language as a whole. The educated Londoner’s speech, which was also Chaucer’s, was the basis of the modern ‘received standard’. Chaucer did much for the English poetic tradition. When Chaucer asked his contemporary Gower to correct his Troilus and Criseyde, Chaucer was using the literary term ‘to correct’. Spenser devoted a big portion of the shepherdess calendars to linguistic experiment. To find a proper language for his Faerie Queene he tried archaisms in style, accidence and vocabulary. He also experimented with dialectical words, rustic provincial terms and even coined an occasional word. His Faerie Queene provided poetry with derring do and faerie; he provided prose with blatant. His Bragadochio is still in literary use. But, faerie Queene gave romantic English poetry an appropriate language. The old French word enchantment first appears in old English romance Sir Orfeo, from which Spenser took the phrase Lord of Faerie for his own poem. This Faerie with its connotations has become a separate term from the usual Faerie. Spenser was thus a working critic of the language.

Dryden wrote prose, poetry and literary criticism and discussed about the questions of language as they came before him. He regarded himself as a conscious improver of the language. He was a member of the Royal Society’s committee on English. But he wrongly believed that language could be static. He was in consistent in linguistic judgments but, it was he who tried to bring the language of poetry nearer to the language conversation. He also improved prose. He discussed the language of his predecessors including Shakespeare; of course, he did not add much to the English vocabulary. But he was a pioneer at least in his efforts to make poetry more conversational. His prose sought after clarity and simplicity.

The Contribution of Dr. Samuel Johnson to English Language:

Dr. Samuel Johnson was a great scholar and lexicographers. His Dictionary is a famous work and a distinct contribution to English language. To it, he has prefixed an account of English grammar and language which have still value. He disliked change but he understood the inevitably changing nature of the language. In his lives of the poets he included some criticism of the poet’s work and added his own linguistic views. He was the first to lay down the principles of Shakespearean textual criticism. It is wrong to say that Johnson Latinized his language. In fact, he modeled his prose on the 17^th century writer Sir Thomas Browne. Such writers sought balance and rhythm in their English with Latin prose – style. So, Johnson did this too but, he seldom coined a word from Latin. He was supreme as a lexicographer, a critic of language and a maker of prose.

Contribution of John Milton to English Language:

Milton had three fold influences on English which are….

1.      He had his own ideas of spelling with which he experimented.

2.      He was a keen student of the language and a fine practitioner in it.

3.      He added a number of words and phrases to English.

Milton composed verses deliberately to be read aloud. His blindness made him conscious of the importance of emphasis and pronunciation. He was keenly interested in spelling for aesthetic reasons. He, in his instructions to his printer, tried to indicate a distinction in spelling, between the stressed and unstressed forms of the personal dpronoun mee hee, shee for emphatic forms and me, him and her for weaker forms. He also emphasized whether the past participle (weak) in –d was to be pronounced as a separate syllable ed or not used –t rather than –a –d for such words. (walkt for walked). He prepared phonetic sound like Sovran for Sovereign and Artic for Artic. Thus, he showed his sensitiveness to pronunciation. He used the syllable –n as distinct from the sound –en e.g. 

Heaven and Forbidden as Heav’n and Forbidd’n.

Milton had no influence on English spelling. His sensitiveness to pronunciation is of interest. In the learned age, when Latin was still the language of science and philosophy, Milton voices his preference for the possibilities of the vernacular. He wanted to use all the potentialities of English. In his prose pamphlets also there are critical utterances like He touches the question of music in language (prefixed to Paradise Lost). One objection against Milton is that his English is Latinate but, on scrutiny, we find that he makes a deliberate use for selected effect, of words of Latin origin, now obsolete. It is in syntax that Milton is influenced by Latin models. Often the syntax is not intelligible to any not verse in Latin. But this extremely Latin syntax might have seemed natural to his contemporaries. Milton was a great master in English poetic language.

The word pandemonium was coined by Milton to describe the assembly hall built in hell. It colloquially now means ‘The hell of a Row’. Many phrases of Milton have become current e.g. Precious bane (Gold), from noon to dewy eve; prove a bitter morsel, confusion worse confounded, a heaven on earth, to save appearances etc.

He also uses dialect words and archaisms for special effects. His early poems show a lot of influence of Spenser and of his archaisms James Joyce, as in his stream of consciousness novels, has tried to express the subconciouness and symbolize impressions without saying anything intelligible. Mr. C.L.Wrenn calls James Joyce’s performance an ephemeral episode in the history of the literary language. Many good developments have followed during the last three centuries. Among the recent writers and philosophers there has been a clear cut interest in the potentialities of English language.

Rhetoric and Oratory in English Language:

Oratory is the art of making speeches. In modern times an orator can address vaster crowds than before thanks to the microphone, the wireless and the television. Education covers a less wide field of effective allusions and thought-ticking wit. The leisurely acquisition of knowledge with aesthetic growth that we find in orators like Burke, Pitt or Churchill, belongs to the bygone days. Rhetorical writing has also become rare social conditions are not conductive to the production of good speakers or rhetoricians but, in the past English language has been enriched by orators like Ruskin and Macaulay. No orator had any marked influence on language but, great speakers have left memorable examples which have effect on the general development of the language and occasional phrases have crept into English language. Mr. Churchill’s best speeches had literary allusiveness, balance and rhythm but, vivid memorable phrases will be all the effect on the language such as ‘dusty answer’, blood, toil, tears and sweat’ ‘Never was so much owed by so many to so few’ etc.

Burke’s written speeches stand a supreme. They have given a few phrases to literary language. He had amazing individuality, telling literary allusiveness and simple words effectively used. But now his speeches are read only by the professional student. His memorable phrase that has come down to us is ‘The age of chivalry is gone’.

Tendencies in English Today:

With the effect of psychology on literature, it is natural that there should be self-consciousness n linguistic usage and a more introspective mental habit. That is why there is general tendency to seek after correctness in English and some received standard but, the more a speaker becomes conscious of the sounds of the language the less natural he will become in the expression of his personality. What do we mean by ‘Correct’ or ‘Good’ English? Is it aesthetic or practical? Do we prefer a preferable sound or an intelligible sound? And if we prefer beauty of sound, is there anything like a standard or beauty? No, doubt it will all depend upon the purpose for which the language is used. For example: Broadcasters want maximum clearness and intelligibility in their English. They are heard and understood over the widest area. So they avoid all pronunciations which will appear strange to far off people. An orator on the other hand, stirs up an emotional response in his audience.

Good English is the English of the educated classes used without self-consciences. Educated people would have assimilated the traditions of the language and would know how to use the resources of the language fully and to avoid vagueness and jargon. Such people can be expected to use the standard pronunciation. We can use the term received standard of English as far as pronunciation is concerned. There are many types of good English, but there is uniformity in written language. So the answer to “what is correct?” can be ‘what the educated speakers say’.

There are three types of spoken English in English which are as…

Received Standard

Regional Dialects

Modified Standard

‘Received standard’ is good English as indicated above regional dialects are in localized use in rural areas such as those of South Devon or Cumberland ‘modified standard’ is the speech of a people who have been bred in a regional dialect and who have corrected this in schools and colleges but who have reached a language that is a half way house between local dialect and standard English. This modified standard has limited varieties. To this we may add the speech of large industrial towns with mixed people and their dialects have evolved a mixed common speech. Then there are occupational dialects of Yorkshire West Riding textile workers who have their own specialized vocabulary; modern life requires universally clear and comprehensible English and so wants a received standard pronunciation to be used by all but, therefore one type is not necessarily superior to another. For example, a rural dialect may contain vivid expressions and words that are unequalled in standard language. A man used to regional dialect may not be able to express himself well in acquired English. For while the received standard can be understood by all, there is a lot room for variety, intonation etc. in it.

Influence of the Radio on English:

The radio is the means of broadcasting language and making it universally acceptable. Attempts have been made to standardize English because of its spreading in many parts of the world, because of cheap newspapers and compulsory English and fixation of spelling. The attempt has also been to eliminate dialects. Regional dialects are replaced by social and class dialects. So the written words remain common and have become the recognized conventional English. A speaker from Canada or Australia or England uses the same written language though his pronunciations may be different.

The oxford English dictionary says, the pronunciation is the actual living from or forms of a word, that it the word itself, of which the current spelling is only a symbolization.’ The spoken word must continue to change. It is doubtful if the standardized written language in far flung areas like Australia, Canada and India will be strong enough to resist the tendency to disintegration and fragmentation. Can English so heterogeneously pronounced in vast areas of the world be kept from disintegration?

A second aid to bolster up Standard English came from the setting up of the official broadcasting centre in 1922. So, radio and printing are the recognized means of making the language universally acceptable. It may help to check the tendency to disintegration and encourage a more uniform type through trained announcers. How far are the ordinary people influenced by the B.B.C (British Broadcasting Company) the B.B.C voices follow specially prepared cadences and usages all over the world. They may set up a recognized standard of spoken English. But the B.B.C found difficulty in the pronunciation of place names etc. so they set up an Advisory Committee on Spoken English in 1926. This developed into issuing advice on special points of pronunciation. The advisory committee became something like a nucleus of some of academy. They issued English lessons of all kinds. People have tended to accept the pronunciation of the radio announcer as having some authority. There are a number of correct and alternatively acceptable pronunciations for a number of words. Good English include variety of pronunciations also. A number of northern educated people are not satisfied with the B.B.C pronunciations. In fact Mr. Wrenn is of opinion that the Northern pronunciation like that of fast and ask is preferable and more representative of English. It has also happened that the pronunciations accepted by the B.B.C have been later rejected by those well qualified to judge. So to cover this lacuna, the B.B.C issued provisional decisions on points of pronunciation and then reconsidered these in this light of criticism received from the public even the B.B.C has recognized that there are good types of English in various areas like Wales and Scotland. The B.B.C has been active to determine how far the influence of its standardizing tendencies for spoken English is likely to have lasting iresults. For foreigners, constant gearing of a conventionalized form of the language will serve as a conserving model. There is growing interest in the nature of speech, in the need for clear utterance land the ability to express one’s views in effective language. There is a keen interest in phonetic, speech therapy and in reciting poetry. But increased interest in good speaking is an immense gain to the study of the language as a whole.

We must remember that language is a natural growth and should not be forced. Good English must be clear, natural and effective. It must be an effortless expression of the speaker’s thoughts. Self- consciousness will thwart naturalness. The training of a sensitive ear and the development of linguistic observation may promote this end of proper words in proper places. Accuracy and sensitive imitation of the best and deeper feeling for the language and understanding of its potentialities can only be added by knowledge.

English as a World’s Greatest Modern Language:

The expansion of English cultural and commercial influence and the dominance of the American civilization show that English is on its way to become a world language and an international language. It will not replace one’s mother tongue but will be used as a secondary language in India and other countries of the world. Artificial or deliberate scientific constructions are artificial. Such attempts in the form of Esperanto or Novial are not living organisms as a language is. They are selected speech elements which sooner become static. So it was desirable to select an existing language and English has become that language but there are two difficulties which are as follows…

1.      The vast and complex vocabulary

2.      The lack of relationship between spelling and pronunciation

So, two methods are tries to avoid the difficulties which are known as…

1.      Basic English

2.      Anglican English

Basic English was invented by C.K.Ogden and tried successfully in several parts like China. It was even made an official scheme by the British government. It consists of 850 words, thought necessary for expressing minimum things and simple international intercourse, and translations. Common international technical terms are added to these 850 words like Hotel and Radio. Verbs except a few motor words like Take and Give are eliminated. The resulting language is easy to learn, but lacks the qualities of a language because Basic English is a scientific selection not natural growth; it does not have the living quality of English. Now, the Basic English does not interest the public.

Anglican English   

Anglican English is supposed to solve the difficulty of English spelling fell by the foreigners. It was invented in Sweden and perfected by an outstanding philologist, Prof. Zarchrisson. It ties to look natural and simplify English spelling on phonetic lines. This has been tried in earlier centuries and so it is not new. But the aims are pursued more scientifically. But English must continue to change and there is symbolic and ideographic spelling which does not depend on sound. A phonetic spelling becomes out of date with the changing sound and it may not be worth trying. But different parts of the world pronounce English words differently; so the spelling may have to vary. The experience of other countries in this direction is not encouraging Norway has changed its spelling thrice within living memory. So Anglican does not seem to find acceptance in the world.

Language is a social activity. It is a question whether English should become a world medium but, it is subject that concerns anthropologists and other students of natural sciences.

Conclusion:

So at last we come to known that English was old language than after it is known as world or international language but only international or world name is just not enough with that English is international world modern language we have to tell that. The King Arthur’s sword was built like all kinds of metals and after all it is the great sword of the history all people heard and read about it; here English language is also like the sword which is build with the all kind influences of world’s other great countries and make it international language of the world. After all this research paper topic focus on English from the days of Anglican to modern and Radio to whatsapp world.

Bibliography:

C.L.Wrenn 2010-11: The English Language. New Popular Prakashan, Surat