APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (E.L.T)

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APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (E.L.T)

Abstract:

                                  In the world there are many approaches and all that approaches have their own identify definition, terms and its theories. In English language teaching there are many approaches which help teachers as well as students to guide them. These all approaches are made for and use for the students and in English language teaching all the approaches is use by teacher for teaching these all approaches are give teachers as well as students new aspects and vision. Teachers basically use all these approaches in the classroom. All these approaches are made for not only week or normal students but for cleaver student as well. Teacher use approaches by their gumption and their knowledge with consultancy. Most these approaches are use in primary as well as higher secondary level but sometime it is used in upper education also. English Language Teaching is the subject which learns everything to students, teachers, and undergraduate as well as post graduate students as well. It is boon for those who dealt with English and English language teaching.

Introduction:

In English Language Teaching there are various approaches which plays very tremendous and numerouno role to the teaching of English as the Second Language. In this research paper we will see different approaches like (Structural approach, Situational approach, Functional approach, Communicative approach, etc. This paper gives us new things and it brings us down to the different world of other linguistic and English Language Teaching’s other fields. It brings us down to the world of various approaches and its importance to teaching of English as the second language. All the approaches play and make equal space and importance in English Language Teaching (E.L.T) without approaches E.L.T-English Language Teaching not call or known as English Language Teaching. Approaches are known as heart and E.L.T. is a soul of language how to teach it, in a short way both meet together and play enormous importance.

Names of Approaches in English Language Teaching:-

Structural Approach – S.A

Communicative Approach – C.A

Traditional Approach – T.A

Cognitive Approach – C.A

Socio-Cognitive Approach – S.C.A

Oral Approach –O.S.A

Psychological or Humanistic Approach – P/H.A

Learned Centered Approach – L.C.A

Teacher Centered Approach – T.C.A

Functional Approach – F.A

Individualistic Approach – I.A

Content Based Approach - C.B.A

Project Based Approach – P.B.A

Student Activated Multi Skill Approach – S.A.M.S.A

Facial Approach – F.A

Natural Approach – N.A

Minimalist or Methodist Approach – M.A

Principle Based Approach – P.B.A

Subject Mattered Centered Approach – S.M.C.A

Modcom Approach – M.A

Lexical Approach – L.A

Genre` Based Approach- G.B.A

Process Based Approach- P.B.A.

Notional-Functional Approach- N.F.A

Task Based Approach – T.B.A

Critical Approach – C.A

Creative Approach – C.A

Localized Approach – L.A

Asher’s Approach – A.A

      Structural Approach (S.A) :-

                                               The different arrangements of words are called structures. They may be complete utterances or they may form a part of a large pattern. For example: He is a thief. The pattern of this structure is S.V.O it means that S- Subject, V- Verb and O- Object; Second sentence Is he a thief the sentence structure as well as word places and grammatical rules also change in this above sentence we can see V.S.O it means that V- Verb, S- Subject and O- object arrangement of words. The different types of arrangement are called structures. In fact, we can say that the structures are the tools of languages. Each language it has its own tools, pattern and structures.

Simple Meaning:

                                           Approaching English the basis of selected structure is called structural approach. It is called structural approach because the main emphasis is laid down on the mastery of structures or pattern of the sentence and phrases and also on the special features of the language which help in the construction of a sentence such as word order, structural words and a few inflexions in English. In this approach, the use of mother tongue (L1) is allowed at the initial stages and that too for explaining a situation when some sentences pattern is to be practiced. The learners are given drill of the structures till they are able to use them automatically without straining their minds.

Definitions of Structural Approach:-

According to Mr. Brewing Ton………

“Structural Approach is a scientific study of the structures, patterns and fundamental structures of English language, their analysis and logical arrangement.”

According to C.S. Bhandari………

“Structural Approach to English is teaching the learner certain selected structures in a certain order.”

“It is not proper and correct to call the Structural Approach a method of teaching. It is not a method; it is a just approach in which any method can be used with it.”

Objectives of Structural Approach:-

According to Menon and Patel the objectives of structural approach are as follows…

1.      To lay the foundation, of English by establishing through drill and repetition about 275 graded structures.

2.      To enable the children to attain mastery over on essential vocabulary of about 3000 root based words for active use.

3.      To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading lessons.

4.      To teach the four fundamental skills namely understanding, speaking, reading and writing in the order named.

5.      To lay proper emphasis on the aural-oral approach, active methods and the condemnation of formal grammar for its own sake.

Characteristics of the Structural Approach:-

The concept of English structure system depends upon three main characteristics which are briefly discussed below in order of importance.

1.      Word Order :

Worde order or the ‘patterns of form’ is of main importance in learning English language. It is the order of words in a pattern that makes true meaning clear.

2.      Presence of function Words :

The structural devices make use of another important principle. This is the essential use of ‘function words’ or ‘structural words’. The structural words which help the construction of utterances with content words are:

a.       The Pronouns (for example I, me, he, her, their some, any etc.)

b.      The Prepositions (for example in, on, above, over, under, beneath, at, from etc.)

c.       The Helping Verbs as (do, have, be, will, can, may etc.)

d.      The Adjective and Adverbs for example this, that, all, each, every, ago, again, also even, ever etc.

3.      The use of a small number of influence and another importance characteristics is that English language makes us of a small number of inflections with compared to other languages. Inflectional changes are prominent in the following examples:

a.       In verbs – I play, He plays, I am playing, and I played.

b.      In Nouns – One boy, Two boy, That boy’s cap, one man, two men, men’s food

c.       In Adjective and Adverb – Great, Greater, Greatest, Good, Better, Best, Great, Greatly, Beautiful, Beautifully

4.      New material is presented in dialogue form.

5.      There is dependence on miming memorization of set phrases and over learning.

6.      Structures are sequence by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

7.      Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.

8.      There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught inductively.

9.      Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in content.

10.  There are much of tapes and language laboratories and visual aids.

11.  Great importance is attached to pronunciation.

12.  Very little of the mother tongue is permitted.

13.  Successful responses are immediately reinforced.

14.  There is a great effort to get students to produce error free utterances.

15.  There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.

16.  Language skills are taught in order.

Principles of the Structural Approach:

The structural approach is based on some principles which are explained here under…..,

1.      The principle of Oral Work and Speech

                                       In the learning of a language, speech is more important than reading and writing, the reason being that language is learnt orally first. Then speech becomes the born for acquiring other skills like reading and writing as well. In this approach speech is given more importance.

2.      Formation of language habits :

                                       Here a lot of drill work is given to the learners. The students are given a lot of practice in listening, speaking, reading and writing. Thus, the structures are well fixed up in minds of the learners. Speech is the necessary means of fixing firmly all ground work.

3.      Pupil’s Activity:

                                           The structural approach puts more emphasis on pupil’s activity than on the teacher’s. It is the child who is the learner; therefore he must be actively involved in the teaching-learning process. Form the above three principles, we observe that speech and oral work are the fundamental of the structural way. The pupil himself assumes prominence in every activity connected in the new way of teaching and learning the language. In fact, oral work is the sheet-anchor of the approach.  The whole approach is based on the principle that language is learnt through use and that the use of it is almost always accompanied by activity of some kind. Pleasurable activity is the secret of success in language assimilation. For learning of the language the students are expected to be very active. In structural approach, pupil’s activity is given more importance as compared to teacher’s activity. Moreover, the best teaching takes place if both the teacher and students are actively involved in it.

4.      Mastery of Structures :

                                           In structural approach, emphasis is laid on the mastery of structures as compared to the acquisition of vocabulary. One structure is taken up as the teaching point. It’s listening, speaking, reading and writing practice is given to the learners step by step. The more the aural or oral practice is given to the learners the better would be the result. Actually oral work forms the beings of effective learning of the language material. Emphasis therefore, need be laid on all the four skills. It will ensure mastery of structures and mastery of structures results in effective leaning of the language. For example use of ‘To Have’ as structure in a substitution table:

I
We		Two	Pens
Your		Four	Books
They	Have	Some	Apples
The boys			Flowers
The girls

5.      Teaching of structures through situations :

In structural approach the teacher is expected to create a meaningful situation that makes the teacher’s work interesting. Moreover, the students are able to learn the structures very well. The different types of meaningful situations can be created by facial expressions, by dramatization and by actions. In fact, the resourceful teacher faces no difficulty in creating meaningful situations.

6.      Teaching one item of language at a time :

In structural approach, only one item is taken up at a time and taught to the students in this way, the students are able to grasp it well. A new structure is taught by using the vocabulary already learnt by the students. The second structure is introduced when the learner acquire mastery over the first structure.

7.      Principles f selection and gradation of structures:

Students age, capacity, class, time allows teachers ability etc. are the factors to divide the selection of structures.

a.       Simple structures should be started in the stating complicated can be taken in next and following stages.

e.g.    i. I have read the novel.             ii. I had read the novel.

Thus, present perfect and past perfect sentence structures can be taken one after the other.

Useful structures must be selected to be there in the first few lesions.

E.g. what is your name? How do you do? Where are you going? Etc. can be taught in simple conversation. Our aim is to provide only a working knowledge of English, so we can choose useful structures.

      3. easy to express and explain should be guiding principle. If we drew a picture of a bird and say, “I am drawing a bird”, it would be easy to follow. It can be expressed or explained also very easily. But, if I say, ‘I am honest’ or ‘I am loyal’, both these words honest and loyal would be difficult to grasp by the students as honesty and loyalty both are difficult to explain and understand these being abstract ideas.

      4. Connective links should be selected first. If we say ‘I eat a mango’ it can be followed by ‘you eat’, ‘we eat’, ‘they eat’ etc. but I teach cannot have more connective links in a class; As others do not teach. This is to be kept in mind. 

How to learn Structures?

Structures can be taught through several ways, they are:

a.       Structures can be taught through situations. The situation can be either verbal or non-verbal. Verbal situation through which a learner speaks on something familiar events.

e.g.  1. Description of the movements of a pet animal.

        2. Cricket commentary

      b. Structures can be taught through gestures and actions.

     c. Structures can be taught through charts, table and diagrams.

     d. The sentence patterns of English are to be picked up to practiced and fixed in mind. Thus, structural approach broadly rests on the following aspects.

Drill Method and It’s Types

Expansion Drill

Repetition Drill

Chain Drill

Drill Method:

Whatever is taught in an oral approach is drilled by the teacher and the students in the class.

                               I.            Expansion Drill :

The teacher gives a model sentence. Then he gives a cue. Makes the students expand on it.

                            II.            Repetition Drill :

Students are asked repeat the teacher’s model.

                         III.            Chain Drill :

This refers to the chain of conversation that comes out as one by one; the students ask and answer each other’s questions. The chain continues will all students taking part in this action. This drill gives the teacher an opportunity to check each student’s speech.

Advantages of Structural Approach:

1.      The students remain active throughout in the teaching learning process.

2.      This approach helps the students to acquire fluency in their spoken English.

3.      It makes the students creative learner, they are able to think a large number of sentences of similar types.

4.      The students are able to understand the subject matter fully because teaching is conducted by creating meaningful situations.

5.      The learners are able to retain the subject matter in their minds for a longer time because they learn through situation.

6.      Learning of the language takes place in a natural way because the students have listening and speaking first followed by reading and writing.

7.      It enables the students to have good command over the language.

8.      It helps the learners to have good pronunciation. Whether a student mispronounces a word, there is immediate check by the teacher.

9.      Language learning becomes a habit with the student, so the learner is able to speak or write without any stress or stain.

10.  The different skills of teaching leaning the language are equally emphasized. So, the students are good in all the skills. i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing.

11.  Structural approach helps all the students of the class to learn the language well. Even the slow learners and the backward children are benefited.

Limitation of Structural Approach:

1.      In structural approach the learners have to be given a lot of practice. This type of teaching might make the process of teaching, learning, dull and mechanical for a few learners.

2.      Teaching by structural approach requires the services of really competent and hard working teachers.

3.      Teachings by structural approach will b successful only, if we have structurally graded syllabus.

4.      Now when the emphasis is on communicative approach, structural approach cannot be given more importance and value.

5.      Textbooks are not written based on selection and gradation of structures.

      Communicative Approach (C.A) :-

                                           The communicative approach was initiated by Robert Langs. We are taught to think of ourselves as distorters and misperceive unreliable slaves to our inner fantasies particularly when we are patients in therapy. However, the communicative approach has shown that it is more accurate and compelling to see ourselves as highly reliable perceivers, with the understanding that our most valid perceptions are experienced unconsciously and encoded in the stories we tell to ourselves and others; Knowing how to decode these stories is the key to a truly accurate view of the human emotion-processing mind and emotional life.   

In the early 1970s the communicative approach was developed by Robert langs. it is theory of paradigm of emotional life and psychoanalysis that is centered human adoptions to emotionally charged events with full appreciation that such adoptions take place both within awareness and outside of awareness. The approach gives full credence to the unconscious side of emotional discovering a new, validated and deeply meaningful way of decoding. It has brought forth new and highly illuminating revisions of our understanding of both emotional life and psychotherapy. It calls for significant changes in presently accepted psychoanalytic thinking and practice. The communicative approach is also known as communicative language teaching (C.L.T) it emphasizes interaction and problem solving as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning English or any language for itself, it tends to emphasize activities for example role play, pair work and group work and group work, it switched traditional language teaching’s emphasis on grammar, and the teacher-centered classroom, to that of the active use of authentic language in learning and acquisition. The communicative approach also draws on sociolinguistic and to some extent on stylistics. The influence of theoretical linguistics on it has been nominal but that of pedagogical grammarians. There has evolved an American school in opposition to the prevailing British tradition within the communicative approach.

Learning strategies is like allowing learners to become more self-directed and more independent in learning the new language help them to participate actively in communication. In her book ‘interpreting communicative language teaching: context and concerns in teaching education’ sacignoon includes a useful summary of the eight characteristics of communicative language teaching by the linguist Mr. M. Berns.

Characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching or Communicative Approach which are as follows……

1.      Language teaching is based on a view of language as communication. Language is seen as a social tool that speakers use to make meaning. Speakers communicate about something to someone for some purpose either orally or in writing.

2.      Diversity is recognized and accepted as part of language development and use in second language learners and user as it is with first language users.

3.      A leaner's competence is measured in relative not in absolute terms.

4.      More than one variety of the language is recognized as a viable model for learning and teaching.

5.      Culture is recognized as instrumental in shaping speaker’s communicative competence in both their first and following language.

6.      No single methodology or fixed set of techniques is prescribed.

7.      Language use is recognized as serving ideational, interpersonal and textual functions and is related to the development of learner’s competence in each.

8.      It is important that learners be engaged in doing things with language. They use language for a variety of purpose in all phases of learning.

One major features of communicative teaching is pair and group work. This type of work is suggested to encourage students to use and practice functions and forms. It helps the students to become more independent and t accept responsibility.

Learner and Teacher Roles:

                                  Communicative Approach emphasizes ‘self-direction for the learners’, as the teacher won’t be around to guide them the whole time particularly not when the learners speak the language outside the classroom they are expected to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. As stated by Oxford ‘This is essential to the active development of the new language’. The learner should enter into situations where communication takes place as much as possible to increase his or her communicative proficiency.

Teacher no longer depend on activities that require repetition, accuracy and the memorization of sentences and grammatical patterns but instead they require the learners to negotiate meaning and to interact meaningfully in the new language. Learners have to participate in classroom activities based on a cooperative rather than individualistic approach to learning. They need to listen to their peers in order to carry out group work successfully.

The teacher adopts different roles. On the one hand, she is a facilitator a guide and a helper and then again a coordinator, an ideal person and co-communicator. She talks less and listens more to the students output. Along with that, the teacher also indentifies the students learning strategies and helps the students independently. Instructional tasks become less important and fade into the background that doesn’t mean that they aren’t used at all but with less significance. These changes give the teacher more scope for variety and creativity and she gives up her status as a person of authority in a teacher-learner hierarchy. It is the teacher’s responsibility to be creative and prepare appropriate materials at home. The teacher can also assume other role let’s say the needs analyst, the counselor or the group process manager.

Following are the seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language

1.      The instrumental function by using language to get things.

2.      The regulatory function by using language to control the behavior of others.

3.      The interactional function by using language to create interaction with others.

4.      The personal function by using language to express persona feelings and meanings.

5.      The heuristic function by using language to learn and to discover.

6.       The imaginative function by using language to create a world of the imagination.

7.      The representational function by using language to communicate information.

Learning second language was in the same way viewed by proponents of communicative language teaching and communicative approach as well. It is acquitting the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions. At the level of language theory, communicative language teaching and approach has a rich, if to some extent eclectic theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative approach view of language follows………………

I.                   Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

II.                 The main function of language is for interaction and communication.

III.             The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

IV.             The main units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features but then categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

                                  The most major obvious advantage in communicative approach is that it increases of fluency in the target language. This enables the learners to be more confident when interacting with other people and they also enjoy talking more. The approach also leads to gains in the areas of grammatical /sociolinguistic / discourse / strategic competence through communication.

                                  One other most disadvantage is that it is difficult for the teacher alone to check the language use of every student particularly in a big class. The students are allowed to make mistakes but then again they need to be corrected preferably not despite the fact that in the middle of a conversation by the teacher in order to improve and so as not to make the same mistake again and again. For that reasons, it is not helpful if there is only one teacher for one class.

Another point is that teacher might be that teacher should have to motivate and counseling the class as well as support normal and week students. The teacher needs to prepare the material at home provide it those students who have its need teacher should have to motivate and support all the students either he/she is week, normal, come from any cast.

      The Notional - Functional Approach :

                                        When we use a language we do some specific thing with it. For example we may ask question either to make an inquiry or to confirm some news, even to express surprise. In our day-today transactions, we use language to ask for help or advice to give directions, instructions or information, to thank or to welcome someone. Thus, we use language and thereby do something with it. Further, when we use language, we do following three things……

1.      Say something [ not read or reproduce someone else’s words]

2.      Seek hearer’s attention [ there is someone listening to us ]

3.      Expect some response [ either verbal or non verbal – by gestures, postures and actions ]

Thus, we use language with a purpose. This purpose is the reasons or intention of the act of speaking. When the purpose is fulfilled, we can say that the language was used effectively. This purpose to use language is the function.

Language functions are a manner in which people use the language. In real life when we use a language, in speech or writing, we do something with the language. For example when someone says, ‘I like to play basketball’ the speaker of the sentence is stating his/ her like and choice. Language functions thus are the purpose for which people speak or write.

Some examples of Functional Language or Language Functions:-

i.                    Making inquiries and responding to them.

ii.                  Making requests and responding to them.

iii.                Asking for and giving permission.

iv.                Asking for and giving directions.

v.                  Asking for opinions, suggestions, advice and responding to them.

vi.                Agreeing / disagreeing

vii.              Arguing/ stating and justifying one’s point of view.

viii.            Expressing a sense of gratitude.

ix.                Complementing, consoling encouraging people.

x.                  Apologizing / saying ‘sorry’.

xi.                Describing people, places, things, processes.

xii.              Reporting an event.

xiii.            Seeking specific information / probing

xiv.            Narrating stories and events

xv.              Giving instructions

xvi.            Expressing ability / inability

xvii.          Introducing people

xviii.        Offering invitations, accepting and rejecting invitations

xix.            Saying ‘no’ politely

xx.              Talking about routine

xxi.            Talking about possibilities

xxii.          Reprimanding and asking for explanation

In real life we always use language to carry out some or the other function. This means that the utterances we use have a meaning for us as well as for the hearer. In most cases, the utterances are longer than single sentences. Let’s look at these following examples…….

a.       Excuse me, which bus goes to the airport station? b.      The black one c.       Thank you 1.      Two (Tickets for) America please. 2.      Here you are 20 rupees, Mr. Prada   3.  Sure Trring……Trring…… ( Phone is Ringing) i.                    Why don’t you pick up your cell phone, man? ii.                  I’m Shaving iii.                Alright!

Why do we need Functional English? :-

                                               Every language becomes operational or active through such functions. As Henry Widdowson says, ‘Language is what language does.’ That is to say that if our language or speech and writing fail to achieve the purpose it aims at, it is improper or incompetent use of the language. For instance, if someone makes a request for a glass of water, and does not get it, we can say that communication has failed; the way the language was used did not achieve the purpose it was supposed to. You must have noticed that real life use of language is always contextual, not in terms of isolated bits. Many things are understood without being actually told. Further, language also carries the social meaning; we use such words and expression that are suitable to the occasion. For example, we greet people differently as follows…….

Good Morning

Hi

Hello !

Very, Good Morning

Namaste`

                                        We many offered a person or make him/her happy with our use of the language. Language, thus, is a social tool. It is not merely a series of isolated sentences, devoid of context. Use of language is social act. Therefore, more than being right or wrong, effectiveness of language use is measured in terms of appropriateness or inappropriateness of the utterance. Since language is a tool for interaction in the society, it ought to be taught in that fashion. We do not learn specific features of the language (e.g. past tense) once and for all at any particular stage. Apart from accruing its meaning through use along with other language items, we return to the previously acquired lectures and refuse our understanding and use.

                                       Language is an open-ended entity. It keeps on constantly modifying itself. It adds new words and expressions, modifies or deletes the old ones. In this sense, it is infinite. The whole language, therefore, cannot be taught at once. It needs to be taught in slices; so a few language functions are selected to be taught at particular level. This selection is based on the communicative value of the language function at that particular stage. For instance, during the first year of English, language functions such as introducing oneself, talking about people, friends, family members etc. making simple requests, describing places (school, village, house etc.) may be found to be more useful.

                                     Further, each function can be conveyed or illustrated by different language items grammar points, styles, modes of formality. This actual pattern is called the form. Form means shape. It may refer to the word order/spelling or visual shape (how does the sentence look) or it may refer to the sound pattern/pronunciation (how does it ‘sound’). Form is what one sees or hears at first. In a way, it is the surface structure. Function refers to the meaning conveyed (what does this utterance actually convey.) this is the deep structure. So, what is actually said or written is the form and what is intended or conveyed is the function.

Here are some example which are in following table ………………….

Single Form	Multiple Functions
Please, switch off the fans                     (ending with a rising tone)	In Request (tone)
Please, switch off the fans                    (ending with a falling tone)	In Command / Order (tone)
Please, Switch off the fans (ending with a neutral tone)	In Instruction / Advice (tone)

Single Function	Multiple Forms
Request	1.      Please, close the Restaurant. 2.      Close the Restaurant, will you? (Interrogative Pattern) (Imperative Construction) 3.      Will you please close the Restaurant? Sir 4.      Do you mind closing the Restaurant? 5.      Would you mind…….. (use of Model Auxiliary) 6.      Do you have any objection if I ask you to close the Restaurant? (embedded question pattern)

We express the same meaning or message in different ways which are as follows……….

Purpose or Language Function	Ways of making a request
[ Getting a glass of water]                    Making a Request	1.      Can I have a glass of brandy please? [ Interrogative Pattern ] 2.      Will you please get me a glass brandy? [ Interrogative Pattern ] 3.      Brandy, please. [ Interrogative Patten ] 4.      Give me Brandy, please. [ Imperative pattern ] 5.      Brandy Imperative Pattern ]

                                                                                                                                                                In this above all examples, the same language function of request is manifested in different grammatical forms. Although, the shades of meaning vary a bit in each of these expression.

The language remains the same.  According to the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and other circumstantial factors, the speakers choose the expression. Language functions are the way the people use the language in contexts. In real life situations, the focus is on meaning, not on the form or pattern. This focus on meaning, message or function is the crux of the functional approach/ syllabus.

The functional syllabus focuses on the following features which are as follows……

1.      The emphasis is on the learner’s ability to use language in particular social events/ activities.

2.      Although it aims at accuracy, its priority is for social appropriateness in the use of language.

3.      It identifies main types of language in sets and subsets. It further specifies how these functions may be realized in various ways through the language items.

4.      The sequencing or organization of the functions is form more general and frequent to specific and less frequent ones; it is also cyclic in nature.

                  Textual teaching forces students to respond to the text in the same, uniform way and arrive at the same meaning. Students are engaged in memorizing language bits which they forget too. To be efficient users of the language students need to develop and understanding of the way language operates in real life contexts. They need to be given the opportunity to say something that is personally so relevant that they can see value and make use of what they are learning. Thus, they learn to use the language as an instrument to be used for communication rather than knowledge or information to be stored for use sometime in further. Language learning in such a case becomes a test for expression of personal meaning.

             No teacher can claim to have taught unless the learners have learnt and as discussed above, learning is a result of what the learners do. Thus, while teaching is in the hands of teacher, learning takes place on the part of the learners. The two, thus, are equal partners in what happens in the classroom. Lengthy, detailed explanations on the part of the teacher hardly yield much result. Explaining implies verbalizing one’s experience and understanding of some concept. However, teaching means enabling the learners to develop the skills of the English language. This is possible in a climate that is rich in language use, on the part of the teacher and the learners. Teaching thus demands, on the part of the teacher, creating conditions in the classroom where in learners go through the experience of the use of the language. The functional way teaching English as a second language, to a large extent, fulfills these conditions.

            The previous approaches to the teaching of English as a second language made at best the learner ‘structurally competence’ i.e. the one who has developed the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences yet who is unable to perform a simple communicative task. (Newmark, 1966). Newmark calls such learners ‘communicative incompetence’ on the same lines, Hymes (1970s) goes on to say; ‘there are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless.’ Henry Widdowson distinguishes the use of language in two broad categories with features of each. They are as under….

.

Linguistic Categories	Communicative Categories
Correctness Usage Signification Sentence Preposition Cohesion Linguistic skills [ hearing & speaking ]	Appropriateness Use Value Utterance Elocutionary act Coherence Communicative abilities [ listening & talking ]

                 

                        Thus, methods and approaches such as grammar cum translation, audio-lingual and situational approach or language teaching are based on the presentation and practice or grammatical structures and essentially, a grammar based syllabus. In 1972 the British linguist D.A.Wilkins published a document that proposed a radical shift away from using the traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary to describe language to an analysis of the communicative meanings that learners would need in order to express themselves and to understand effectively. This initial document was followed by his 1976 work notional syllabuses, which showed how language could be, categorized on the basis o notions such as quantity, location and time, and functions such as making requests, making offers and apologizing.

                         D.A.Wilkins’ work was used by the council of Europe as drawing up a communicative language syllabus, which specified up communicative functions a leaner would need in order to communicate effectively at a given level of competence. At the end of the 1970s the first course books to be based on functional syllabuses began to appear. Typically, they would be organized on the basis of individual functions. For example, many course-books would begin with the function of introducing oneself’, perhaps followed by the function f ‘making request’ with typical exponents being ‘can I…..?’, ‘Could you…..?’, ‘Is it alright if I……?’ and so on.

    The criticism of the functional approach includes the difficulty in deciding the order in which different functions should be presented. Is it more important to be able to campaign or to apologize for example another problem lies in the wide range of grammatical structures needed to manipulate basic functions at as opposed to ‘would you mind if I …….?. in addition although, it is possible to identify hundreds of functions that are expressed by a range of widely used exponents. There is also the apparently random nature of the language used, which may frustrate learners used to the more analytical and ‘building-bock’ approach that a grammatical syllabus can offer. Another apparent weakness is the question of what to do at higher levels. Is it imply a case o learning more complex exponents for basic functions or is one required to seek out ever more obscure functions (complaining sarcastically, for example) on the positive side, however there is little doubt that functional approach have contributed a great deal the overall store of language teaching methodology. Most new casebooks contain some kind of functional syllabus alongside a focus on grammar and vocabulary, thus providing learners with communicatively useful expressions in tandem with a structures syllabus with a sense of profession. In addition, the focus on communication inherent in the practice of functional exponent has contributed greatly, to communicative language teaching in general, finally the idea that even beginners can be presented with exponents of high communicative value from the very start represents a radical shift the kind of approach that began with the present simple of the verb ‘to be’ in all its forms and focused almost entirely on structure with little regard for actual communication in the target language.

      Natural Approach :

                            The natural approach is a method of language teaching. The natural approach was developed by Dr. Tracy D. Terrell, A professor of linguistics at University college of Irvine and University College of San Diego (late University College San Diego) and Dr. Stepehen Krashen is professor of linguistics and education at U.S.C. It is developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The natural approach’s aims is to nurture naturalistic language acquisition in a classroom setting; it emphasis on communication and places which decreased importance on conscious grammar study. It also explicates correction of student’s errors. Efforts are even made to make the learning environment as stress-free as possible. In the natural approach, language output is not forced but then again it is allowed to emerge spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts of comprehensible language input.

                             The natural approach has become methodically associated with Krashen’s monitor model. It is often as an application of the theory to language teaching. The natural approach to language learning is designed to develop basic communication channels and skills; but it does not make an expert in grammar. Adult beginning language learners, go through different stages of competence in the new language just like children only. In natural approach foreign language classes, students are allowed to progress naturally from one stage to the next stage.

1.      Comprehension :

                                    When children learn their first language (L1, Mother tongue) they spend thousands of hours just listing before anyone expects them to say a word. But then when children start using it they make lots of errors and mistakes, they use ‘baby talk’ and parents are excited. While adults are usually want to talk much sooner and listening comprehension is still the base upon which language learning depends. We learn how to speak for the reason that we understand what is being said by the speaker. In a natural approach learners will learn to recognize the meaning of words used in context and to guess at the meaning of utterances without knowing all of the words or even the grammar. The teacher will try to create a comfortable classroom environment with the purpose that the learners will b willing to guess at meaning and limit the correction of speech to utterances that are beyond understanding.

2.      Early Products :

As the leaner’s speeches will contain many errors at the stage. Forcing production only increase errors and forces the learner translates from his/her native language. The time taken by different language learners will be.

1.      Children take 9 to 15 months to reach this stage.

2.      Adolescents may delay speech from one to six month

3.      Adults take from hours to weeks.

At this early stage in language development, the learners will be able to produce

a.       Yes/no answers to questions.

b.      One-word answers to questions.

c.       List of words and two word sequences even short phrases.

3.      Emergent language :

                              After the second stage which had given continued exposure to meaningful language, language where the focus is on the content and not the grammar, the learner’s speech will progressively improve in vocabulary and accurate grammar. Each learner needs differing amounts of exposure to language with the aim of acquire the new linguistic system. So do all of the assigned work. As the learners progress, he/she will begin to produce three-word phrases, longer phrases and complete sentences where applicable. Always remember that native speech in any language is made up of many incomplete sentences: ‘No’, Of Course’, ‘Great!’, ‘Ok!’, in a minute’ and ‘maybe or might be’ etc. when the learners will participate in dialogue with classmates then discussion on topics and narrating a series o events will be done.

                            In Natural Approach the instructor will engage in different types of activities. Total active physical response commands will be given by the instructor by pointing to an item or picture and saying a one or two words together to produce short phrases even participating in short dialogue and then interviewing classmates. Reading charts, graphs and short paragraphs will help t develop reading and writing about own experiences will develop language fluency. Learning a language is a lifetime process so never wait until you think you are perfect to start listening, talking, reading and writing. That day may never come. As a supernumerary, use the language you have now to enjoy the language, music, food and culture of the specific speaking world or society.

      Traditional Approach :

                                     The term Traditional Approach assuming in the title of this approach is intended to contrast with recent though the term is not meant to refer to the grammar cum translation method alone, but to the whole range of methods including Grammar cum Translation, Direct method, Audio-Lingual method and Cognitive Code Learning Theory and so on including diverse compromise between them evolved up until about three decades ago. It is an approach which is structure dominated. It compromise methods which share the assumption that the major problem in learning a second language is to master the structure of that language to the exclusion of other elements of the language. The essential problem for the earner is to master linguistic form and only secondarily the social meaning and use of such forms. Out of the necessity for keeping the class under control, this traditional approach maintains teacher centeredness. It is an approach most frequently met with in school and in commercial institutions for adult learners. Teacher training institutions often follow this approach which offers them the least theoretical and most down to earth introduction to the art of teaching a language. The traditional approach is found principally in non-English speaking countries among non-native teachers where teachers are not native speakers of the language they teach. It will be more convenient for them to use a long established method for which materials radically available than to struggle with more open-ended techniques which would challenge their linguistic competence.

Though the traditional approach is now theoretically defunct, it is not to be rejected out of the hand of there are some situations, mainly where general purpose school language courses are concerned in which the traditional method may provide the most useful foundation for further more communicatively oriented learning at a later stage.

      Humanistic or Psychological Approach :

This approach summaries as a general movement in language teaching and especially in second language teaching, a range of methods techniques which on the surface may seem unconnected but then again which in fact share at least two important assumptions which are as follows……

1.      The affective aspects of language learning are as important as the cognitive aspects and hence the learner should be treated as a whole person more willingly than as a characterless Language Acquisition Device (L.A.D)

2.      The answers to language-learning problems are more likely to come from psychology than from linguistics.

The major methods coming under this approach are silent way, community. Language learning, suggestopedia and the total physical response (T.P.S) in general they enable the students to talk about what it is valuable to them as individuals to talk about instead of carrying them on towards a target communicative competence specified in a syllabus. Jakobovits and Gordon in their book “the context of Foreign Language Teaching” presents an argument comprehensively against the authoritarian teacher-centered classroom with the teacher as purveyor of narrowly linguistic information and for the creation of learning environment which minimize anxiety, enhance personal security and promote genuine interest though a deeper engagement of the learner’s whole self. This is pertinent, to the humanistic approach as a whole. The works of sauvignon and all right are also identified more with this third approach than with the second one that is communicative approach. The experimental works of both Asher and Postovsky also deserve mention. However, they are not centrally located in it since they are more interested in the empirical kind of psychology of the humanistic language teachers. The connecting factor is that they draw their ideas about language teaching from psychology instead of linguistics. Both are concerned with the initial stage of language learning, and have in common the view that this should be silent but active on the part of the learner. Both reject the more traditional and predominantly audio-lingual view that oral practice and repetition are in themselves learning devices. Their studies are formally unrelated however they both draw upon a considerable body of psychological research to support their positions.

As a result, in the mainstream of the humanistic approach we find a combination of the tendency to look to psychology and of the tread towards treating the whole person rather than just the specific element deficiency in his target-language materiel; and on the periphery, we find figures such as Asher and Postovsky are interested more in the psychological instead of the linguistic aspects of language learning.

      Minimalist / Methodist or Paul Rowe’s  Approach:

Paul Rowe is known as the founder of the Minimalist or Methodist Approach. He was father of this approach. This approach is new approach is underpinned with Paul Nations’ three actions of successful ESL teachers. In the beginning, it was written specifically for unqualified, in experienced people teaching in EFL situations. Though, experienced, language teachers are also responding positively to its simplicity. Language items are generally provided using flashcards. There is a focus on language-in-context a multi-functional practice.

      Total Physical Response (T.P.R) or Asher’s Approach :

Asher’s approach begins by placing primary importance on listening comprehension by emulating the early stages of mother tongue acquisition and then moving to speaking, reading, and writing. Students demonstrate their comprehension by acting out commands issued by the teacher. Teacher provides novel and often humorous variations of the commands. Activities are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active. Learning roles, Activities eventually include games and skits.   

      Learner Centered Approach (L.C.A):

Learner Centered Approach (L.C.A) is an approach to teaching that is increasingly being encouraged in higher education. Learner-Centered teachers do not employ a single teaching method. This approach emphasizes a multiplicity of different types of methods that shifts the role of the instructors from givers of information to facilitating student learning.

Traditionally teachers focused on what they did and not on what the students are learning. This emphasis on what instructors do often leads to students who are passive learners and who did not take responsibility for their own learning. And who did not take responsibility for their own learning. Educators call this traditional method, instructor-centered teaching. In contrast, Learner-Centered Approach occurs when instructors focus on student learning.

Learner Centered Approach is also known as Learning-Central-Teaching or Student-Centered Learning. Educators commonly use three phrases with this approach. Learner-Centered Approach places the emphasis on the person who is doing the learning. Learning-Central-Approach focuses on the process of learning.  Both the phrases appeal to faculty because these phrases student centered learning is also used but some instructors do not like it for the reason that it appears to have a consumer focus, seems to encourage students to be more empowered and appears to take the teacher out of the critical role. Teachers should use Learner-Centered Approach in their teaching for the following reasons….

The Knowledge Base:

The conclusive result of decades of research on knowledge base is that what a person already knows largely determines what new information he attends to, how he organizes what new information, and how he filters new experiences, and even what he determines to be important or relevant.

1.      Strategies Processing and Executive Control :

The ability to reflect on and regulate one’s thoughts and behaviors is an essential aspect of learning. Successful students are actively involved in their own learning, monitor their thinking, think about their learning, and assume responsibility for their own learning.

2.      Motivation and affect:

The benefits of Learner Centered Approach include increased motivation for learning and greater satisfaction with school; both these outcomes lead to greater achievement.

3.      Development and individual Differences:

Individuals progress through various common stages of development, influenced by both inherited and environmental factors. Depending on the content or task, changes in how people think, believe or behave are dependent on a combination of one’s inherited abilities, stages of development individual differences, capabilities, experiences and environmental conditions.

4.      Situation or Context :

Theories of learning that highlight the roles o active engagement and social interaction in the student’s own construction f knowledge strongly support this learner-Centered Paradigm. Learning is a social process. Many environmental factors including how the instructor teaches, and how actively engaged the student is in the learning process positively or negatively influence how much and what students learn. In comparison studies between students in lecture and active learning courses, there are significantly more learning gains in the active learning courses.

Advantages of Learner-Centered Approach over instructor centered teaching:

1.      When the focus becomes student learning colleges attain higher rates of student retention and have better prepared graduates than those students who were more traditionally trained. A learner centered approach is model, Weimer described the five learner-centered practice areas that need to change to achieve leaner-centered teaching; the function of content, the role of the instructor, the responsibility for learning, the processes and purpose of assessment and the balance of power.

2.      The functions of the content in Learner-centered Approach include building a strong knowledge foundation and to include building a strong knowledge foundation and to develop learning skills and learner self-awareness.

3.      The role of the instructor should focus on student learning. The roles are facilitative rather than didactic.

4.      The responsibility for learning shifts from the instructor to the students. The instructor creates leaning environments that motivates student to accept responsibilities for learning.

5.      The process and purposes of assessment shift from only assigning garages to include constructive feedback and to assist with improvement. Learner-Centered Approach uses assessment as a part of the leaning process.

6.      The balance of power shifts so that the instructor shares some decisions about the course with the students such that the instructor and the students collaborate on course policies and procedures.

Weimer proposes 7 principles to guide the instructor trying to develop a Lerner-Centered Approach which are as follows……..

1.      Teachers do learning task less.

2.      Teachers do less telling; students do more discovering.

3.      Teachers do more design work.

4.      Faculty does more modeling.

5.      Faculty does more to get students learning form and with each other. Create work for small groups to do in class.

6.      Faculty work to create climates for learning.           7.  Faculty does more with feedback.

In order to be Learner-Centered Approach instructional practice needs to change in five key areas which are…..

1.      The balance of power.

2.      The function of content.

3.      The role of the teacher.

4.      The responsibility for learning.

5.      The purpose and processes of evaluation.

However the teacher assumes that student-centered pedagogy is the most appropriate. Many variables come into play when we try t determine which teaching style is best.

1.      Discipline

2.      Class Size

3.      Subject within the discipline

4.      Room layout

5.      Environmental factors in the room, for example : Temperature

6.      Teacher personality

7.      Classroom dynamic between students

In a Student-Centered class, students may be working alone, in pairs or in groups. Working together in pairs is very effective it helps each other and creates support among the group persons. It teaches other new things, sharing ideas, opinion and suggestion improvement.

1.      Before students work together their teacher will help them prepare to work together with explanations and pronunciation practice interacting with the teacher and the whole class, asking questions or brainstorming ideas. While students are working together, their teacher will be available to give advice and encouragement.

2.      After they have finished working together, and the class is reassembled, their teacher will give them feedback; offer suggestions and advice make corrections and answer questions. When students are working together in English then they have to follow following things…….

1.      Talk more.

2.      Share their ideas.

3.      Learn from each other.

4.      Make more involved.

5.      Feel more secure and less anxious.

6.      Use English in a meaningful in realistic way.

7.      Enjoy using English to communicate

But there are also we find such students who are not interesting in it they are like…..

1.      Feel nervous.

2.      Embarrassed.

3.      Tongue-tied.

4.      When they speak English and make a lot of mistakes.

5.      Speak in their native language, not in English.

6.      Not enjoy working together.

A Learner-Centered Approach helps students to develop a can-do attitude. It is effective, motivating and enjoyable. In a student-centered class, students don’t depend on their teacher all the time, waiting for instructions, words of approval, correction, advice or praise. They don’t ignore each other, but look at each other and communicate with each other and help each other. While in difficulty or in doubt, they do ask the teacher for help or advice but only after they have tried to solve the problem among them. The emphasis is on working together, in pairs, in groups and as a whole class. Their teacher helps them to develop their student’s language skills.

Incremental steps allow instructor to make changes gradually over time. These incremental steps define a manageable transition process from instructor centered to learner centered approach. Interactive presentations and workshops on one r more students are taking responsibilities for leaning.

1.      How the teacher asses her students will impact how and what they learn.

2.      Aligning courses in terms of their objectives, teaching learning methods and assessments.

3.      Organizing content to be taught through organizing schemes

4.      Implementing Learner-Centered Approaches in your teaching

The six components for the responsibility for learning which are as follows……..

1.      Responsibility for learning.

2.      Learning to learn skills or skills for future learning including time management, self-monitoring, and goal setting.

3.      Self-directed, lifelong learning skills including determining a personal need to know more, knowing who to ask or where to look for information, determining when need is met.

4.      Students’ self-assessment of their learning.

5.      Students’ self-assessment of their strengths and weakness.

6.      Information literacy skills framing questions, accessing and evaluating sources, evaluating content and using information legally.

So, at last we come to know that Learner-Centered Approach play very vital pivotal pivot role in the English Language Teaching (E.L.T) it develops the abilities of teacher’s as well as students also.

      Oral Approach:

Few language teachers in the 1990s are familiar with the terms Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching, which refer to an approach to language teaching developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s. Even though neither term is commonly used today,

the impact of the Oral Approach has been long lasting, and it has shaped the design of many widely used EFUESL textbooks and courses, including many still being used today. One of the most successful ESL courses of recent times, Streamline English (Hartley and Viney 1979), reflects the classic principles of Situational Language Teaching, as do many other widely used series (e.g., Access to English, Coles and Lord 1975; Kernel Lessons Plus, O'Neill 1973; and many of L. G. Alexander's widely used textbooks, e.g., Alexander 1967). As a recent British methodology text states, "This method is widely used at the time of writing and a very large number of textbooks are based on it" (Hubbardet al. 1983: 36). It is important therefore to understand the principles and practices of the Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching.

Background:

The origins of this approach began with the work of British applied linguists in the 1920s and 1930s. Beginning at this time, a number of outstanding applied linguists developed the basis for a principled approach to methodology in language teaching. Two of the leaders in this movement were Harold Palmer and A. S. Hornby, two of the most prominent figures in British twentieth-century language teaching. Both were familiar with the work of such linguists as Otto Jespersen and Daniel Jones, as well as with the Direct Method. What they attempted was 1'0 develop a more scientific foundation for an oral approach to teaching English than was evidenced in the Direct Method. The result was systematic study of the principles and procedures that could be applied to the selection and organization of the content of a language course (Palmer 1917, 1921)

Vocabulary Control:

One of the first aspects of method design to receive attention was the role of vocabulary. In the 1920s and 1930s several large-scale investigations of foreign language vocabulary were undertaken. The impetus for this research came from two quarters. First, there was a general consensus among language teaching specialists, such as Palmer, that vocabulary was one of the most important aspects of foreign language learning. A second influence was the increased emphasis on reading skills as the goal of foreign language study in some countries. This had been the recommendation of the Coleman Report (Chapter 1) and also the independent conclusion of another British language teaching specialist, Michael West, who had examined the role of English in India in the 1920s. Vocabulary was seen as an essential component of reading

proficiency. This led to the development of principles of vocabulary control, which were to have a major practical impact on the teaching of English in the following decades. Frequency counts showed that a core of 2,000 or so words occurred frequently in written texts and that knowledge of these words would greatly assist in reading a foreign language. Harold Palmer, Michael West, and other specialists produced a guide to the English vocabulary needed for teaching English as a foreign language, The Interim Report on Vocabulary Selection (Faucett et a!. 1936), based on frequency as well as other criteria. This was later revised by West and published in 1953 as A General Service List of English Words, which became a standard reference in developing teaching materials. These efforts to introduce a scientific and rational basis for choosing the vocabulary content of a language course represented the first attempts to establish principles of syllabus design in language teaching.

The Oral Approach was the accepted British approach to English language teaching by the 1950s. It is described in the standard methodology textbooks of the period, such as French (1948-50), Gurrey (19551,

Frisby (1957) and Billows (1961). Its principles are seemed Hornby s famous Oxford Progressive English Course for Adult Learners (1954-6) and in many other more recent textbooks. One of the most active proponents of the Oral Approach in the sixties was the Australian George Pittman. Pittman and his colleagues were responsible for develop an influential set of teaching materials based on the situational approach, which were widely used in Australia, New Guinea, and the Pacific territories. Most Pacific territories continue to use the so-called Tate materials, developed by Pittman's colleague Gloria Tate. Pittman was also responsible for the situation based material developed by the Commonwealth Office of Education in Sydney, Australia, used m the English programs for immigrants in Australia. These were published for worldwide use in 1965 as the series Situational English. Material by Alexander and other leading British textbook writers also reflected the principles of Situational Language Teaching as they had evolved over a twenty year period.

The main characteristics of the approach were as follows:

1.      Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form.

2.      The target language is the language of the classroom.

3.       New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.

4.      Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.

5.      Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones.

6.      Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.

According to Geetah Nagraj, the use of mother-tongue can be avoided. In view of this Geetah Nag raj suggests that these language items should be given in meaningful situations, the learners can deduce the meaning and the context from the situation in which it is used.

Pitman suggests that the situations will be controlled carefully to teach the new language material. In such a way that there can be no doubt in the learners’ mind regarding the meaning of what he hears. Summarizing the characteristics of this Oral approach by Geetah Nag raj says: are as follows……

1.      Speech is the basis of language teaching-new language items and vocabulary items are

presented orally before they are presented in the written form.

2.      The language items which are commonly used by native speakers in their day-to-day language are selected for teaching.

3.      The items are also graded according to their usefulness, frequency and teach ability.

4.      The language items thus selected are presented and practiced in meaningful situations.

5.       Vocabulary items are selected with reference to the general service list.

6.      Reading and writing are based on items which have already been introduced and practiced orally.

·         Eclectic Approach :

Larsen-Freeman (2000) and Mellow (2000) both have used the term principled eclecticism to describe a desirable, coherent, pluralistic approach to language teaching. Eclecticism involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, each of which may have very different characteristics and may be motivated by different underlying assumptions.

The use eclecticism is due to the fact that there are strengths as well as weaknesses of single theory based methods. Reliance upon a single theory of teaching has been criticized because the use of a limited number of techniques can become mechanic. The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.

Advantages of Eclectic Approach:

1.      Safety: The use of a variety of ideas and procedures from different existing approaches and methods will increase the chances of learning taking place.

2.      Interest: Teachers need to use different techniques to hold the learners' attention.

3.      Diversity: Different learning/teaching contexts require different methodologies.

4.      Flexibility: Awareness of a range of available techniques will help teachers exploit materials better and manage unexpected situations. Informed teaching is bound to be eclectic.

·         Conclusion:

After all we come to know that every approaches in the English Language Teaching and Learning all plays very important and it brings new and deep influence and impact on students learning as well as student’s teaching. This all approaches are developed my many great and tremendous work of the great well known linuguist as well as Language sceientist. They did great research on the E.L.T and its sub parts. All the approaches here in this paper plays great role in the life of students as well as teachers; with the help of these all the approach can create and make great changes in the students learning, behavior with this teacher also develop inner ue to these approach and they can learn from these approach a lot. These all are approaches is not build or make for only students but it is helpful for those students who are fresher and who don’t have idea how to teach and treat students these all the approaches also teach them; One more last thing that’s the name of English Language Teaching (E.L.T) and English Language Learning (E.L.L).

·         Bibliography:

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PRAKASH S. CHAUHAN